CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL
The Concentric Zone model is a model of the internal
structure of cities in which social groups are spatially arranged in a series
of rings. The Concentric Zone model was the first to explain the distribution of
different social groups within urban areas. It was originally based off Chicago
(although the model does not apply well to Chicago today). The model was
created in 1923 by E.W. Burgess, Robert Park, and Roderick McKenzie. The idea
behind this model is that the city grows outward from a central area in a
series of rings. The size of the rings may vary, but the order always remains
the same. This model suggests that the social structure extends outwards from
the central business district, meaning that the lower classes live closer to
the city center, while the upper classes live farther from the city center
because they can afford the commute. Also, as you get further away from the
city density decreases. The rent tends to increase as you get further away from
the CBD and residents are more likely to rent near the center. As you get
further away from the CBD it is more likely that you will find condominiums.
Indianapolis is a city that can be applied to the concentric zone model today.
That is because more people rent near the CBD than away from it. However, this
model has its weaknesses. It does not take into account any physical barriers
and it does not take into account gentrification- which may occur in these
cities.
An important feature of this model is the positive correlation of socio-economic statuts of households with distance from the CBD — more affluent households were observed to live at greater distances from the central city. Burgess described the changing spatial patterns of residential areas as a process of "invasion" and "succession". As the city grew and developed over time, the CBD would exert pressure on the zone immediately surrounding it (the zone of transition). Outward expansion of the CBD would invade nearby residential neighborhoods causing them to expand outward. The process was thought to continue with each successive neighborhood moving further from the CBD. He suggested that inner-city housing was largely occupied by immigrants and households with low socio-economic status. As the city grew and the CBD expanded outward, lower status residents moved to adjacent neighborhoods, and more affluent residents moved further from the CBD.
Burgess's work is based on the bid rent curve. This states that the concentric circles are based on the amount that people will pay for the land. This value is based on the profits that are obtainable from maintaining a business on that land. The center of the town will have the highest number of customers so it is profitable for retail activities. Manufacturing will pay slightly less for the land as they are only interested in the accessibility for workers, 'goods in' and 'goods out'. Residential land use will take the surrounding land.
The Different Rings of the Concentric Zone Model
An important feature of this model is the positive correlation of socio-economic statuts of households with distance from the CBD — more affluent households were observed to live at greater distances from the central city. Burgess described the changing spatial patterns of residential areas as a process of "invasion" and "succession". As the city grew and developed over time, the CBD would exert pressure on the zone immediately surrounding it (the zone of transition). Outward expansion of the CBD would invade nearby residential neighborhoods causing them to expand outward. The process was thought to continue with each successive neighborhood moving further from the CBD. He suggested that inner-city housing was largely occupied by immigrants and households with low socio-economic status. As the city grew and the CBD expanded outward, lower status residents moved to adjacent neighborhoods, and more affluent residents moved further from the CBD.
Burgess's work is based on the bid rent curve. This states that the concentric circles are based on the amount that people will pay for the land. This value is based on the profits that are obtainable from maintaining a business on that land. The center of the town will have the highest number of customers so it is profitable for retail activities. Manufacturing will pay slightly less for the land as they are only interested in the accessibility for workers, 'goods in' and 'goods out'. Residential land use will take the surrounding land.
The Different Rings of the Concentric Zone Model
1) Central Business District (CBD)- This area of the city is
a non-residential area and it’s where businesses are. This area is called
downtown in the U.S. and city center in Europe. This area has a developed
transportation system to accommodate commuters coming into the CBD. Also, due
to the high land cost in this area, a lot of sky scrapers are built in order to
take full advantage of that land. Most government institutions, businesses,
stadiums, and restaurants chose this area to build on due to its accessibility.
2) Zone of Transition- the zone of transition contains industry and has poorer-quality housing available. Immigrants, as well as single individuals, tend to live in this area in small dwelling units, frequently created by subdividing larger houses into apartments. Most people in this area rent.
3) Zone of the working class- This area contains modest older houses occupied by stable, working class families. A large percentage of the people in this area rent.
4) Zone of better residence- This zone contains newer and more spacious houses. Mostly families in the middle-class live in this zone. There are a lot of condominiums in this area and residents are less likely to rent.
5) Commuter’s Zone- This area is located beyond the build-up area of the city. Mostly upper class residents live in this area. This area is also known as the suburbs in the United States.
• Transportation costs and land costs are a big part of this theory (bid-rent curves)
Problems with the Concentric Zone Model
2) Zone of Transition- the zone of transition contains industry and has poorer-quality housing available. Immigrants, as well as single individuals, tend to live in this area in small dwelling units, frequently created by subdividing larger houses into apartments. Most people in this area rent.
3) Zone of the working class- This area contains modest older houses occupied by stable, working class families. A large percentage of the people in this area rent.
4) Zone of better residence- This zone contains newer and more spacious houses. Mostly families in the middle-class live in this zone. There are a lot of condominiums in this area and residents are less likely to rent.
5) Commuter’s Zone- This area is located beyond the build-up area of the city. Mostly upper class residents live in this area. This area is also known as the suburbs in the United States.
• Transportation costs and land costs are a big part of this theory (bid-rent curves)
Problems with the Concentric Zone Model
The model has been
challenged by many contemporary urban geographers. Firstly, the model does not
work well with cities outside the United States, in particular with those
developed under different historical contexts. Even in the United States,
because of changes such as advancement in transportation and information
technology and transformation in global economy, cities are no longer organized
with clear "zones" (see: Los Angeles School of Urban Analysis).
• It assumes an isotropic plain - an even, unchanging landscape. Physical features can interrupt the cycle
• Assumes transportation is the same everywhere and does not take into account better methods of transportation
• It is based primarily on residences
• Assumes cities develop and are based on industry
• Assumes the condition of the land is the same everywhere
• Commuter villages defy the theory, being in the commuter zone but located far from the city
• Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry, and entertainment in modern times thanks to modern transportation systems
• Urban regeneration and gentrification - more expensive property can be found in 'low class' housing areas
• Many new housing estates were built on the edges of cities in Britain
• It does not address local urban politics and forces of globalization
• The model does not work well for cities which are essentially federations of similar sized towns, for example Stoke-on-Trent
Sector Model
Sector model- a model of the internal structure of cities in which social groups are arranged around a series of sectors, or wedges radiating out from the central business district (CBD) and centered on major transportation lines.
• Also known as the Hoyt Model. Developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt.
• He said that a city develops in a series of sectors, not rings.
• Different areas attract different activities by chance or by environmental factors.
• As the city grows, activities within it grow outward in a wedge shape from the CBD.
•
Hoyt modified the concentric zone model to account for major
transportation routes
-according to this model most major cities evolved around the nexus of several important transport facilities such as railroads, sea ports, and trolly lines that eminated from the city's center.
-according to this model most major cities evolved around the nexus of several important transport facilities such as railroads, sea ports, and trolly lines that eminated from the city's center.
•
Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped
patterns, or sectors, eminating from the CBD and centered on major
transportation routes
•
It is a monocentric representation of urban areas
•
He posited a CBD around which other land uses cluster
•
But important factor is not distance from CBD as in the
concentric zone model, but direction away from CB
•
As growth occurs, similar activities stay in the same area and
extend outwards
•
The Hoyt model realized that transportation (in particular)
and access to resources caused a disruption of the Burgess model.
•
For example a rail line or major highway to a nearby city may
result in business development to preferentially develop parallel to the rail
line or major highway. So one side of a city may be completely industrial with
another sector may be completely rural.
The
Different Rings of the Concentric Zone Mode
1. CBD- central business district, the area of a city where retail and office activities are clustered. It is also called the central activities district. In North America, it is called “downtown.” In Chicago, it would be the area closest to the lake, most notably Michigan Avenue.
2. Industry
• Industry follows rivers, canals, railroads, or roads
• Lower class workers work here. Paid little, bad working conditions.
• Produces goods or other domestic products for city
3. Low Class Residential
• Low income housing
• Near railroads that feed factories or
• Inhabitants tend to work in factories
• Live near industry to reduce transportation costs
• Pollution or poor environmental conditions due to industry (traffic, noise and pollution make it cheap)
4. Middle Class Residential
• More desirable area because it is further from industry and pollution
• Access to transportation lines for working people who work in the CBD, making transport easier
• Largest residential area
5. High Class Residential
• Housing on outermost edge
• Furthest away from industry
• Quiet, clean, less traffic
• Corridor or spine extending from CBD to edge has best housing.
Where It Does and Doesn’t Apply (Some Weaknesses)
• Applies well to Chicago
• Low cost housing is near industry and transportation proving Hoyt’s model
• Theory based on 20th century and does not take into account cars which make commerce easier
• With cars, people can live anywhere and further from the city and still travel to the CBD using their car. Not only do high-class residents have cars, but also middle and lower class people may have cars.
1. CBD- central business district, the area of a city where retail and office activities are clustered. It is also called the central activities district. In North America, it is called “downtown.” In Chicago, it would be the area closest to the lake, most notably Michigan Avenue.
2. Industry
• Industry follows rivers, canals, railroads, or roads
• Lower class workers work here. Paid little, bad working conditions.
• Produces goods or other domestic products for city
3. Low Class Residential
• Low income housing
• Near railroads that feed factories or
• Inhabitants tend to work in factories
• Live near industry to reduce transportation costs
• Pollution or poor environmental conditions due to industry (traffic, noise and pollution make it cheap)
4. Middle Class Residential
• More desirable area because it is further from industry and pollution
• Access to transportation lines for working people who work in the CBD, making transport easier
• Largest residential area
5. High Class Residential
• Housing on outermost edge
• Furthest away from industry
• Quiet, clean, less traffic
• Corridor or spine extending from CBD to edge has best housing.
Where It Does and Doesn’t Apply (Some Weaknesses)
• Applies well to Chicago
• Low cost housing is near industry and transportation proving Hoyt’s model
• Theory based on 20th century and does not take into account cars which make commerce easier
• With cars, people can live anywhere and further from the city and still travel to the CBD using their car. Not only do high-class residents have cars, but also middle and lower class people may have cars.
Multiple-Nuclei Model
Multiple-Nuclei model is a model of
urban land use in which a city grows from several independent points rather
than from one central business district. Each point acts as a growth center
from a particular kind of land use, such as industry, retail, or high-quality
housing. As these expand, they merge to form a single urban area. The CBD is
not the only generator of change.
- developed in 1945 by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman
- cities tend to grow around not one but several distinct
nodes
à forming a polynuclear
(many-centered) pattern
* Some centers or nodes include:
• ports,
• universities,
• airports,
• parks
• neighborhood business centers.
This model,
unlike others, takes into account the varied factors of decentralization in the
structure of the North American city.
The multiple-nuclei theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership. This increase of movement allows for the specialization of regional centers (eg. heavy industry, business park). A term for the specialization of regional centers would a node. There is no clear CBD in this type of model.
The distant decay theory is still applicable to this model. Land value and population density decline with distance from the central places.
Difference among Concentric, Sector and Multiple nuclei models
1. monocentric – concentric, sector model; polycentric – multiple nuclei
2. multiple nuclei more complex in term of land use zones, e.g. industrial suburbs
3. multiple nuclei allows the suburbanization, transport development, outward growth of city
4. multiple nuclei model gives the idea of land use pattern of a city only
The multiple-nuclei theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership. This increase of movement allows for the specialization of regional centers (eg. heavy industry, business park). A term for the specialization of regional centers would a node. There is no clear CBD in this type of model.
The distant decay theory is still applicable to this model. Land value and population density decline with distance from the central places.
Difference among Concentric, Sector and Multiple nuclei models
1. monocentric – concentric, sector model; polycentric – multiple nuclei
2. multiple nuclei more complex in term of land use zones, e.g. industrial suburbs
3. multiple nuclei allows the suburbanization, transport development, outward growth of city
4. multiple nuclei model gives the idea of land use pattern of a city only
Multiple Nuclei Pattern Factors:
1. Certain activities are limited to
particular sites because they have specialized needs
i.e. retail
district – requires accessibility which is located in a central location,
manufacturing district – requires transportation facilities
2. Certain related activities or
economic functions tend to cluster in the same district
à
can carry on their activities more efficiently as a cohesive unit
i.e. automobile
dealers, auto repair shops, tire shops,
auto glass shops cluster in one area
3. Certain related activities repel
each other
i.e. high
end residential district will locate away
from the heavy manufacturing district
4. Certain activities may be relegated
to less accessible locations
à due to inability to generate enough income to pay
the high rents of certain site
i.e. specialty shops
- Number of distinct nuclei
occurring within a city is a function of city size and recentness of
development
à rampant urban
sprawl: reflected in a mixed pattern of industrial, commercial and residential
areas in peripheral locations
à sprawling urban landscape as described by
geographer
Pierce Lewis: galactic
metropolis
nucleations resemble a galaxy of stars and planets
à some of the nucleations become cities in the
suburbs: edge cities
à
Doughnut Model:
Edge cities are the
CBDs of newly emerging urban centers scattered through the suburban ring
surrounding older central cities
Criticisms About the Multiple Nuclei Model
1) Negligence of height of buildings.
2) Non-existence of abrupt divisions between zones.
3) Each zone displays a significant degree of internal heterogeneity and not homogeneity.
4) Unawareness of inertia forces.
5) No consideration of influence of physical relief and government policy.
6) The concepts may not be totally applicable to oriental cities with different cultural, economic and political backgrounds.
INVERSE
CONCENTRIC ZONE THEORY (Concentric-Sector Model)
- Observed mostly in LDCs
- Reversal of the concentric zone
model
- Cities where this pattern exist
have been called preindustrial
à primarily
administrative and/or religious centers (or
were at the time of
their founding)
à central area is the place of the residence of the elite
class
à low income families live on the periphery
- social class in these places is
inversely related to distance from the center of the city
à Reasons for this pattern:
a. the lack of an
adequate and dependable
transportation
system
à restricts the elite
to the center of the city so
they can be
close to their places of work
b. the functions of
the city (administrative,
religious,
cultural) are controlled by the elite and
concentrated in
the center of the city
How the Gravity Model Works
Over
time, some communities have grown because of improved regional linkages, while
others have slowly wilted on the vine. Normally, larger urban places offer more
services, amenities, and choices than smaller centers. Therefore, when linkages
improve, people tend to travel to the larger centers to shop, recreate, and the
like. In other words, better linkages allow larger urban places to exert a
stronger gravitational pull throughout a region thereby overriding the
influence of smaller central places. Geographers use the gravity model to predict the amount of
interaction between any two places. Simply stated, the greater the populations
of any two places, the greater the interaction between them. Stated another way, the expected interaction
between two urban places (I and j) is directly proportional to the size of
their populations (Pi and Pj), and inversely proportional to the distance (dij)
between them; Iij= k PiPj/dij. In this formula, I=interaction, k=constant,
P=population, and d=distance.
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