Spatial Data

Fundamental properties are inherent to the nature of attributes as they are distributed across the earth’s surface. There is a fundamental continuity (structure) to attributes in space that derives from the underlying processes that shape the human and physical geographical world. Continuity is also a fundamental property of attributes observed in time. If we know the level of an attribute at one position in space (time) we can make an informed estimate of its level at adjacent locations (points in time). Spatial autocorrelation, in statistical terms, is a second order property of an attribute distributed in geographic space. In addition there may be a mean or first-order component of variation represented by a linear, quadratic, cubic (etc.) trend. We can think of these as two different scales of spatial variation although the distinction may be hard to make and quantify in practice. As Cressie (1991) remarks: ‘What is one person’s (spatial) covariance may be another persons mean structure’ (p. 25). It has often been remarked that spatial variation is heterogeneous. This type of decomposition (plus a white noise element to capture highly localized heterogeneity) is one way of formally capturing that heterogeneity using what are termed ‘global’ models. Another approach is to only analyze spatial subsets, that is allow model structure to vary locally.

(Haining, R. 2009. The Special Nature of Spatial Data (Chapter 2). Spatial Analysis (Handbook). Ed. A.S. Foteringham and P.A. Rogerson. Sage Publications. 6 p.)

Types of GIS Spatial Data

In GIS, spatial data is classified as three main types: point, line, and polygon.

A point is a convenient visual symbol (an X, dot or other graphic), but it does not reflect the real dimensions of the feature. Points may indicate specific locations (such as a given address, or the occurrence of an event) and/or which are usually too small to depict properly at the chosen scale features (such as a building).

A line is a one-dimensional feature with a starting and an ending point. Lines represent linear features, either real (e.g., roads or streams) as in Figure 2.2, or fictitious (e.g., administrative boundaries).

A polygon is an enclosed area, a two-dimensional feature with at least three sides (and therefore with an area). For example, it may represent a parcel of land, agricultural fields, or a political district.

(Fundamentals of GIS Data, Chapter 2, p.1 accessed at http://igre.emich.edu/wsatraining/TManual/Chapter2/Chap2.pdf)

What makes the analysis of spatial data special is the fact that it has always played a central role in the quantitative scientific tradition in geography. In general terms, spatial analysis can be considered to be the formal quantitative study of phenomena that manifest themselves in spare. This implies a focus on location, area, distance and interaction, e.g., as expressed in Tobler's (1979) First Law of Geography, where "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." In order to interpret what "near" and "distant" mean in a particular context, observations on the phenomenon of interest need to be referenced in space, e.g., in terms of points, lines or areal units.

The wide array of philosophical and methodological dilemmas that confront the analysis of spatial data necessitates an eclectic perspective. Many different ways of looking at a data set or at a model specification should be compared, and sensitivity analysis should play a central role. If different approaches yield the same conclusions, one can be fairly confident that meaningful insights have been gained. On the other hand, if the statistical findings turn out to be very sensitive to the approach taken, there is likely to be something wrong with the data and/or with the model and not much faith should be put in the precise quantitative results.

The characteristics of errors that affect observations of spatial data clearly motivate the need for a specialized methodology of spatial statistics and spatial econometrics.

(Anselin, L. 1989. What’s Special about Spatial Data? Spring 1989 Symposium on Spatial Statistics, Past, Present and Future, Department of Geography, Syracuse University.)

Spatial Thinking

Spatial thinking, one form of thinking, is a collection of cognitive skills. The skills consist of declarative and perceptual forms of knowledge and some cognitive operations that can be used to transform, combine, or otherwise operate on this knowledge. The key to spatial thinking is a constructive amalgam of three elements: concepts of space, tools of representation, and processes of reasoning. It is the concept of space that makes spatial thinking a distinctive form of thinking. By understanding the meanings of space, we can use its properties (e.g., dimensionality, continuity, proximity, separation) as a vehicle for structuring problems, finding answers, and expressing and communicating solutions..

(Learn to Think Spatially. National Academies Press. USA, 2006 accessed thru https://www.nap.edu/read/11019/chapter/6)

To think spatially entails knowing about (1) space—for example, the relationships among units of measurement (e.g., kilometers versus miles), different ways of calculating distance (e.g., miles, travel time, travel cost), the basis of coordinate systems (e.g., Cartesian versus polar coordinates), the nature of spaces (e.g., number of dimensions [two- versus three-dimensional]); (2) representation—for example, the relationships among views (e.g., plans versus elevations of buildings, or orthogonal versus perspective maps), the effect of projections (e.g., Mercator versus equal-area map projections), the principles of graphic design (e.g., the roles of legibility, visual contrast, and figure-ground organization in the readability of graphs and maps); and (3) reasoning—for example,Bottom of Form the different ways of thinking about shortest distances (e.g., as the crow flies versus route distance in a rectangular street grid), the ability to extrapolate and interpolate (e.g., projecting a functional relationship on a graph into the future or estimating the slope of a hillside from a map of contour lines), and making decisions (e.g., given traffic reports on a radio, selecting an alternative detour).

(Learn to Think Spatially. National Academies Press. USA accessed thru https://www.nap.edu/read/11019/chapter/6)

 A spatial datum comprises a triple of measurements. One or more attributes (X) are measured at a set of locations (i) at time t, where t may be a point or interval of time. So, if k attributes are measured at n locations at time t, we can present the spatial data in

the form: {xj (i; t) ; j = 1, . . ., k; i = 1, . . ., n}. (2.1)

(Haining, R. 2009. The Special Nature of Spatial Data (Chapter 2). Spatial Analysis (Handbook). Ed. A.S. Foteringham and P.A. Rogerson. Sage Publications. 5 pp.)

          It should be noted that spatial data is at the heart of every GIS application. Spatial data stores the geographic location of particular features, along with information describing what these features represent. The location is usually specified according to some geographic referencing system (e.g. latitude, longitude) or simply by an address. Spatial data may define some physical characteristics, such as location or position, or it may also define a property such as the area of a forest (which results from defining the various positions of its boundaries). (Davies, 1996).

(Fundamentals of GIS Data, Chapter 2, p.1 accessed at http://igre.emich.edu/wsatraining/TManual/Chapter2/Chap2.pdf)

Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is an essential tool of land change science because it facilitates observations across larger extents of Earth’s surface than is possible by ground based observations. This is accomplished by use of cameras, multispectral scanners, RADAR and LiDAR sensors mounted on air and space borne platforms, yielding aerial photographs, satellite imagery, RADAR and LiDAR datasets.  (http://ecotope.org/people/ellis/papers/ellis_eoe_lulcc_2007.pdf)

Remote sensing

               • Helps connect local resources with global perspective

               • Can address immediate needs for information or graphics

               • Shows change over time

               • Provides unique views of natural disasters

               • Helps interpreters support management decisions

               • Helps spark interest among visitors

               • Connects today’s exploration with themes of historical sites

               • Are great sources of information

      (https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/RS4interp1.pdf.)

           Remotely sensed imagery is an effective data source for urban environment analysis that is inherently suited to provide information on urban land cover characteristics and their changes over time at various spatial and temporal scales [2–6]. In the past decades, remote sensing has been widely used in various applications, such as urban structure extraction, urbanization monitoring, change detection, and so on [5,7–13]. With the development and innovations in data, technologies, and theories in the wider arena of earth observation, urban remote sensing has rapidly gained popularity among a wide variety of communities from many aspects such as Land Use/Land Cover (LULC mapping, Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) analysis, impervious surface area estimation and urban ecological security assessment (Du, P. et al, p.6)

References

Du, P. et al. 2014. Remote Sensing Image Interpretation for Urban Environment Analysis: Methods, System, and Examples. Remote Sensing. 6, 9458-9474 pp. https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/RS4interp1.pdf

Ellis, Erle et al., 2007, Land Use and Land Cover Change accessed at http://ecotope.org/people/ellis/papers/ellis_eoe_lulcc_2007.pdf)

Steps in Urban Design

1.       Identify and delineate the boundaries of the particular area to be planned.

2.       Assess the context of the area or community.

3.       Consider/apply Transect-based planning.

4.       Conduct a Visual Preference Survey.

5.       Use the Smart Neighborhood Analysis Protocol (SNAP).

6.       Conduct a vacant lands study.

7.       Conduct a structural and environmental quality survey.

8.       Conduct a land values study.

9.       Conduct studies of aesthetic features of the planning area.

Coastal Land Use Planning

1.       What are the general principles that should be followed in Coastal Land Use planning?

1.       Linkage

2.       Sustainability through participatory approach

3.       Productivity and Biological Limits

4.       Biodiversity Protection

5.       Depth

6.       Socio-Cultural Relevance and Requirements

7.       Conservation of Resources

8.       Capability Building

9.       Institutional Framework

10.   Integration

11.   Ecological Viability

12.   Economic Feasibility

13.   Social Acceptability

14.   Political Viability

15.   Precautionary Principle

2.       What are the imperatives in the preparation of Coastal Land Use Plan?

Relevant data in coastal resource management is imperative in the formulation of Coastal Land Plan. These can be made possible thru Resource Inventory and Stocktaking (Ecological Profiling) and Survey and Mapping of Coastal Zone Subsystems or Coastal Land Subclassification.

3. Who are the relevant stakeholders in the coastal and marine areas? How do you intend to balance interests of relevant sectors?

Land use allocation and coastal resources utilization and development involve several decision makers and stakeholders. National agencies and local governments prepare and implement plans addressing various problems and issues on coastal resources utilization and development. Similarly, NGOs, People’s Organizations (POs) and the private sector implement development activities within the coastal zone. All these efforts should be integrated and redirected or refocused to supplement and complement one another within the context of sustainable development and in conformity with land use planning principles and laws. There is a need to ensure that planning at the local and regional levels is responsive to the needs and aspirations of the local communities. A planning body at the local level should be able to integrate these concerns and activities in the coastal zones.

Reference: Guidebook on Sustainable Coastal Land Use Planning and Management Volume II,IEMSD 1997,p. 13-20

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Four General Land Use Policy Areas

1.       Settlement

Settlements are areas where concentrations of population engage in economic, political, cultural, and other social activities. Settlements Development focuses on the spatial distribution of shelter, infrastructure and networks, and services. It is also concerned with the interrelationships of settlements as they develop and establish functional linkages based on their respective resource endowments and comparative advantages.

The primary concerns of Settlements Development are to help ensure, for the present and future generations of Filipinos:

(a) an effective integration of activities within and among settlements, allowing efficient production and movement of people and commodities through the provision of appropriate land, infrastructure, and facilities; and

(b) the access of the population to housing, education, health care, recreation, transportation and communication, sanitation, and basic utilities such as water, power, waste disposal and other services.

Reference: National Physical Framework Plan for 2001-2030 Executive Summary p. 5

2.       Production

Production Land Use refers to the direct and indirect utilization of land resources for crop production, fishery, livestock and poultry production, timber production, agroforestry, mining, industry, and tourism.

The primary objective of planning for Production Land Use is to determine the most efficient and equitable manner of utilizing and managing land resources such that there is adequate and accessible space for sustainable food production, forest and mineral resource extraction, industry, and tourism, with the end in view of meeting the material and other requirements of the population.

The physical planning issues and concerns are grouped into four categories: food security, levels of production and productivity, industrialization, and environmental impacts.

Reference: National Physical Framework Plan for 2001-2030 Executive Summary p. 7-8

3.       Protection

Protection Land Use refers to the rehabilitation, conservation, and management of sensitive/critical ecosystems to preserve their integrity, to allow degraded resources to regenerate, and to protect the human population from environmental hazards.

Protection Land Use policy guidelines seek to achieve environmental stability and ecological integrity; ensure balance between resource use and the preservation of some educational, cultural and historical significance and protect people and man-made structures from the ill effects of natural hazards. They cover the following protected areas: NIPAS, non-NIPAS and hazard-prone areas.

There are four major physical planning issues/concerns within Protection Land Use:

(a) non-demarcation of boundaries of protection areas;

(b) conflict resolution within protection areas;

(c) disaster mitigation, use of resources and its impact on protection areas; and

(d) information, education and communication campaign.

Reference: National Physical Framework Plan for 2001-2030 Executive Summary p. 10

4.       Infrastructure

The role of infrastructure in national development is to provide the built-up environment that allows production, consumption, and service activities to take place. Infrastructure development in the NFPP covers five subsectors: transportation, communications, energy, water resources, and social infrastructure. Its basic concerns are the provision of basic services, fostering economic and other forms of integration necessary for producing or obtaining the material requirements of Filipinos, and the development of an efficient, responsive, safe, and ecologically friendly built environment.

           

                Reference: National Physical Framework Plan for 2001-2030 Executive Summary p. 11-12

Can areas in the forest land both have protection and production management prescription? Explain your

answer.

Yes, both forest’s protection and production areas can have management prescription because there is a need for these areas to be both preserved based on their uses. The main focus of the management prescription is to preserve the delineation or their respective boundaries. The policy is to develop the production areas into viable area for agroforestry and even for eco-tourism, timber production and other special uses where people in the area will be sustained with their livelihoods or economic needs. With this, people will no longer encroach into the protected forestland and conduct some illegal activities like illegal logging, kaingin, hunting of wildlife and other forms of forest degradation.

In formulating forest land use planning, it is important that the area and the management system for both production and forestland should be properly evaluated so that the best and sustainable use of the land will be ensured.

3. Is there such a thing as protected agriculture (both protection and production management prescription)?

Provide concrete location and examples.

Yes, there is such thing as protected agriculture. This also referred to as prime agricultural land which must protected because these are very fertile and productive. Protection here means, the area is irrigated and cannot be converted into other uses. Both protection and production management prescription should be present in order to ensure that the needs of the people are sustainably addressed. Under RA 8435, this is called as the Network of Protected Areas for Agricultural and Agro-industrial Development (NPAAAD).

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Variances and Exceptions

Variances and/ or Exceptions from the provisions of this Ordinance may be allowed by the Local Zoning Board of Appeals (LZBA) only when the following terms and conditions exist:

1. Variances (deviation from applicable Building Bulk and Density Regulations, Building Design Regulations and Performance Standards) Variance may be allowed provided that proposals satisfy all of the following provisions:

a. Conforming to the provisions of the Ordinance will cause undue hardship on the part of the owner of the property due to physical conditions of the property (topography, shape, etc.), which is not self-created.

b. The proposed variance is the minimum deviation necessary to permit reasonable use of the property.

c. The variance will not alter the intended physical character of the zone and adversely affect the use of the other properties in the same zone such as blocking-off natural light, causing loss of natural ventilation or encroaching in public easements and the like.

d. That the variance will not weaken the general purpose of the Ordinance and will not adversely affect the public health, safety or welfare.

e. The variance will be in harmony with the spirit of this Ordinance.

2. Exceptions (deviations from Allowable Use provisions)

Exceptions may be allowed provided that proposals satisfy all of the following conditions:

a. The exception will not adversely affect the public health, safety and welfare and is in keeping with the general pattern of development in the community.

b. The proposed project shall support economic based activities/provide livelihood, vital community services and facilities while at the same time posing no adverse effect on the zone/community.

c. The exception will not adversely affect the appropriate use of adjoining properties in the same zone such as generating excessive vehicular traffic, causing overcrowding of people or generating excessive noise and the like.

d. The exception will not alter the essential character and general purpose of the zone where the exception sought is located.

Reference: CLUP Guidebook 2013 Volume 3 p.74

The procedure for evaluating applications for Variances and/or Exceptions is as follows:

1. The project proponent shall file a written application for Variance and/or Exception with the LZBA citing the section(s) of this Ordinance under which the same is sought and stating the ground/s thereof.

2. Upon filing of application, a visible project sign, (indicating the name and nature of the proposed project) shall be posted at the project site. This sign shall be maintained until the LZBA has rendered a decision on the application.

3. The LZBA shall conduct preliminary studies on the application. These application papers shall be made accessible to the public.

4. A written affidavit of no objection to the project by the owners of the properties immediately in front of and abutting the project site shall be filed by the applicant with the LZBA within fifteen (15) days upon filing of application.

5. The LZBA shall hold public hearing(s) to be held in the concerned barangay.

6. At the hearing, any party may appear in person, or be represented by agent/s. All interested parties shall be accorded the opportunity to be heard and present evidences and testimonies.

7. The LZBA shall render a decision within thirty (30) days from the filing of the application, exclusive of the time spent for the preparation of written affidavit of non-objection and the public hearing(s). All expenses to be incurred in evaluating proposals for Variances and/ or Exceptions shall be shouldered by the project proponent.

Reference: CLUP Guidebook 2013 Volume 3 74-75